Mitsuye endo biography of michael jackson
The American Home Front During World War II: Incarceration and Martial Law
[2] Bryant 2019; Fort McCoy Public Affairs Office 2021; Sturkol 2023.
[3] Hinnershitz 2021b; National Archives and Records Administration 2021. It is worth noting that because of existing laws, it was not possible for Issei or first generation Japanese immigrants to the United States to apply to become citizens (National Park Service 2023).
[4] The Enemy Alien Act did not apply to US citizens, but Italian Americans – particularly along the West Coast – were also targeted (Hinnershitz 2021b; Taylor 2017; Texas Historical Commission n.d.). The government knew who was under restriction because in 1940, FDR had signed the Alien Registration Act into law. Among other things, it required all foreign-born US residents to register with the government (Gage 2022).
[5] National Archives and Records Administration 2021; Texas Historical Commission n.d. Many family members of those declared enemy aliens chose to accompany their loved ones to the incarceration camps. Detainees from Latin America included a handful of Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. Not all incarcerated Germans were from Germany. The US government considered people from countries annexed or occupied by Germany as “German.” This included those from Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria (Ernst 2011; Farelly 2019; German American Internee Coalition 2023; Hoh 2018; Rosenfeld 2015). For information on archaeology conducted at enemy alien detention camps, see (for example) Asian American Comparative Collection n.d.; Farrell 2017; Ross 2021: 605-606; and Camp 2012, 2019). Enemy alien detention camps across the US include:
- Camp Angel Island, San Francisco, California. Also known as Fort McDowell. Enemy aliens and POWs were held here. The US Immigration Station on Angel Island was listed on the National Register o
Ex parte Endo
1944 U.S. Supreme Court case declaring the internment of Japanese Americans unconstitutional
1944 United States Supreme Court case
Ex parte Mitsuye Endo, 323 U.S. 283 (1944), was a United States Supreme Courtex parte decision handed down on December 18, 1944, in which the Court unanimously ruled that the U.S. government could not continue to detain a citizen who was "concededly loyal" to the United States. Although the Court did not touch on the constitutionality of the exclusion of people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast, which it had found not to violate citizens' rights in the Korematsu v. United States decision on the same date, the Endo ruling nonetheless led to the reopening of the West Coast to Japanese Americans after their incarceration in camps across the U.S. interior during World War II.
The Court also found as part of this decision that if Congress is found to have ratified by appropriation any part of an executive agency program, the bill doing so must include a specific item referring to that portion of the program.
Background
The plaintiff in the case, Mitsuye Endo, had worked as a clerk for the California Department of Motor Vehicles in Sacramento before World War II. After the attack on Pearl Harbor had soured public sentiment toward Japanese Americans, Endo and other Nisei state employees were harassed and eventually fired because of their Japanese ancestry. Civil rights attorney and president of the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), Saburo Kido, working with San Francisco attorney James Purcell, began a legal campaign to assist these workers, but the mass removal authorized by Executive Order 9066 complicated their case. Endo was selected as a test case to file a writ of habeas corpus because of her profile as an Americanized, "assimilated" Nisei. She was a practicing Christian, had never been to Japan, spoke only English and no Japanese, and had a brother in the U
New effort to honor Mitsuye Endo
A petition is circulating to honor Mitsuye Endo, calling on the White House to award her the Presidential Medal of Freedom for sacrificing years of her life in a legal challenge against the U.S. government that led to a Supreme Court victory. Her case forced the U.S. to release American citizens and others of Japanese ancestry from the U.S. government's World War II concentration camps. December 2024 will mark the 80th anniversary of the Supreme Court decision.
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Mitsuye Endo: The Woman Who Took Down Executive Order 9066
"The larger relevance of all the Japanese American cases that went before the Supreme Court during World War II, to my mind, is that they show how dangerous deference to the executive in wartime can be," Tyler says, referring to the ongoing argument over whether the judiciary branch of government (the Supreme Court and other federal courts) should yield all decisions about national security to the executive branch (the president, vice president and cabinet).
In a 2018 USA Today op-ed, Tyler referred to Japanese American internment as a "cautionary tale" for President Trump's proposed travel ban. "This connects to modern day because it means that the Court should be hesitant to defer to the executive with respect to assertions about the needs of national security as a blanket matter."
To underscore her point, Tyler refers to the Supreme Court's decision last year to overturn the 1944 ruling in the case of Korematsu v. United States, in which American citizen Fred Korematsu refused to leave the West Coast following President Roosevelt's executive order and was subsequently convicted of disobeying a military order. While the ruling was technically overruled in "dicta," meaning it may hold more symbolic value than actionable impact, Tyler says it's still a meaningful move.
"Had the Court in Korematsu, among other cases, actually asked to see a factual basis supporting the need for the policies that were put in place by the military under Executive Order 9066, the government could not have provided any evidence," she says. "This fact and the Court's recent overruling of Korematsu — albeit in dicta — should give pause to any court inclined to take the executive at its word when individual rights are at stake."
While the U.S. continues to face complex issues around national security, immigration, citizenship and ingrained institutional prejudices,